You can find interesting information in this section of www. HANDMADE BEADED JEWELRY. org.

Choose one of these topics.

Gemstone History and Beliefs

What are Gemstones?

Gemstone List & Info

Birthstone Lists

Convert Millimeters to Inches

Bead Shapes and Sizes

Learn About Swarovski Crystals

Learn About Glass Beads

Learn About Metal Beads

Fashion Tips about Beads 

Metal Beads

The earliest metal beads were made during the Iron Age which began about 1100 BC. In the ancient countries of Sumeria, Assyria and Egypt, gold, silver and copper were used. The Greeks and Romans used gold.

Today hollow beads are made from a sheet of metal. It is stamped with half of the shape, and cut. The halves are shaped and soldered together. Small beads are made from tubing which is cut. The shapes are made by a punching machine with a die.

Decorations on metal include:

Chasing is hammering a pattern into the metal using a chisel type tool.

Repousse is hammering on the back of the metal to make the design raised on the surface.

Filigree uses wires which may be soldered together to form a shape, or soldered onto a base to make a design.

Granulation adds tiny round grains of gold or silver to the surface of the bead.

Enameling applies a color by firing a paste of powdered glass on to the metal
surface. Exposed metal parts of the bead can be silver or gold plated after the enamel is on.

Cloisone uses enamel. A copper wire is soldered on to the bead to form a design. Layers of enamel are put into spaces in the design. The bead is polished. Then the exposed copper is plated with silver or gold.

Gold Beads 

Today most gold beads are small spacers or tubes. A few decorative beads may be found in a necklace.

Pure gold is too soft to be useful. A gold alloy is assigned a number which designates the amount of pure gold contained. The higher the number, the more gold. Most gold used for jewelry is 14K or 10K. Beads made from 14K gold that are hollow are still very soft. A large bead in a strand of gemstone beads can be dented by the weight of the heavier gemstones.

Gold filled beads are made from a layer of copper between 2 layers of at least 10K gold. It is rolled out to the desired thickness. Then the beads are formed. To be designated gold filled, the gold must be at least 1/20th of the total weight of the object.

Gold plated beads will usually contain less gold. Plating is accomplished by immersing an object in an acid bath along with the plating material. An electric current is passed through. The plating metal is attracted to the base metal object. The thickness of the plating is determined by the length of the process and the strength of the current.

Vermeil is gold plating over sterling silver.

Silver Beads 

Silver is used for small spacer beads, tubes, and decorative beads in many sizes.

Pure silver is also too soft to be used. It is usually alloyed with copper. In the United States, sterling silver designates a minimum of 92.5 % silver. Sterling silver beads and findings are softer than silver plated.

Silver plating is done using the same process as gold plating.

An antique patina can be given to silver by immersing it in a solution of potassium polysulphide. Leaving it in longer causes a darker color.

Silver work in southeast Asia uses hammering, embossing, engraving, openwork, inlay, filigree, and granulation.

Sterling silver beads made in India may contain 80% silver. Many decorative styles are made.

The most well known characteristic of silver beads from Bali is granulation. The beads are formed into halves, soldered together, and then decorated with thin wire designs which are filled in with tiny granulation balls. The beads are sometimes given a black oxidation coating to make them look old.

Thai silver beads are handmade in workshops. Using a production line, each person does one process. Each bead takes 20 to 30 minutes. Patterns are applied with household items such as razors. Soaking in black hair dye gives an antique look.

Other metals are also used for beads. Lead free pewter can be finished in either a silver or gold color. Nickel is a bright silver color. Copper looks reddish golden brown. Brass, a copper and zinc alloy, is a very bright gold color. White metal sometimes called German silver, is an alloy of copper, zinc and nickel.

Iron is no longer used for beads because it rusts. Most good quality non silver metals used today will not permanently turn black or green like the clasps on some of grandma’s old necklaces. I have used some of these metals in my own casual jewelry. Some of my necklaces are more than 10 years old and have not tarnished. These metals give me additional options in my designs.

Care of Metal Beads 

No beads or metals can be expected to retain their beauty if you abuse them. If your sterling or silver plate tarnishes, clean it with a soft cloth. A jewelry cloth will usually work well. It can be purchased at most jewelry stores. Some may contain chemicals that could damage other delicate beads in your necklace. Ask when you buy it. Never use silver cleaning liquids or paste for silver beads. Occasionally gold vermeil can tarnish because of the sterling silver under the plating. Clean it with a polishing cloth.

Exposure to air causes the tarnish on silver. Storing in an air tight container will slow down the tarnishing. You can use a plastic bag. Squeeze the air out of the bag as you seal it. Most beading wire does not kink. I still try to avoid bending my strands of beads very sharply in a small bag.

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Many beads are made from gemstone material. This section of All About Beads includes definitions of related terms, methods used for gemstone identification, and gemstone mining.

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Definitions

What is a gemstone? Modern definitions vary. Some meanings of gemstones have strict guide lines: must have hardness of at least 7 on the Mohs scale; must be transparent, have luster, and high light refraction; must be mineral; must be rare enough to have a high monetary value; can include limited organic material.

All definitions of gemstones include 3 qualities:
1. Beautiful
2. Durable, hard enough to handle and wear
3. Rare enough to have value

What are gems? A gem has been defined as a mineral enhanced in some manner by altering its shape, usually by cutting and polishing. Sometimes the words gem and gemstone are used interchangeably.

The term precious gem, or precious gemstone, traditionally referred to diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds. Sometimes pearls were included. Semi-precious gemstone meant all other gemstones. The terms imply monetary value and have been used for marketing.

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What are minerals? The definition of a mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a specific chemical composition and a distinctive internal chrystal structure. It is usually formed by inorganic processes. Most are chemical compounds. A few are single elements.

A crystal is a solid mineral with a geometric shape, straight edges, and smooth faces. Atoms are arranged in a regular, orderly way.

Another meaning of crystal refers to glass that contains lead.

An inclusion is a crystal or fragment of another substance enclosed in a crystal or rock. Inclusions in gemstones are important in determining the identity of a genuine gemstone. Their shapes in transparent colored gemstones can be seen using a microscope.

Matrix is fine grained rock which holds the gemstone crystal. Beads are often made from material that contains both the crystal and its matrix. Both matrix and inclusions can result in interesting combinations of colors and patterns.

Organic gemstones, such as pearls, coral, and amber, have their origin in plants and animals.

Synthetic gemstones, sometimes called lab created, are produced in laboratories and have physical and optical properties that are similar to the natural gemstone.They have the same chemical composition and crystal structure, but not the same inclusions.

Chemical elements which make up the composition of various gemstones

Gemstone Tests

Gemology is the study of gemstones. 

The unique physical properties of gemstones help to identify them.
Color is caused by the absorption or refraction of light.
Luster is the appearance of the surface in reflected light.
Streak is the color of the powder produced when the stone is scraped on a surface or crushed.
Cleavage is the ability to break into smooth flat surfaces.
Fracture describes other shapes of the edges when the mineral breaks.
Tenacity describes the ability to change shape without breaking.
Refractive index measures the velocity of light passing through a transparent or transluscent mineral. Fluorescence is the color of some minerals under ultraviolet light.
Symmetry is the geometric pattern of the crystals that make up the minerals. Symmetry is used to divide minerals into categories called crystal systems.
Habit is the complete description of the external shape of a crystal and includes all its visible characteristics.

Gemologists use many modern tests that give information about the properties, structure, and characteristics of gemstones. Most are important for identification. Two give information useful for choosing beads.

Mohs scale of hardness assigns numbers from 1 to 10, with 10 representing the hardest. The intervals between the values are not equal. The numbers for a gemstone can vary depending on the exact make up of a particular stone. The test uses scratching for the basis of hardness. A harder mineral will scratch a softer one, but not vice versa. Hardness is not an indication of toughness or strength. Hard minerals can be brittle.

Knowing the hardness of your beads can help you care for them.
A gemstone with a rating of:
1-2 can be scratched by a fingernail
3 can be scratched by a copper coin
4-5 can be scratched by a knife
6-8 can scratch glass
9-10 can cut glass
Diamond is the hardest gemstone and is not used for beads.

Specific Gravity measures density by comparing the weight of an object with an equal volume of water. The density of different kinds of gemstones is not the same. Using specific gravity, you can compare the weight of different varieties of gemstones of the same size. A higher number indicates a heavier stone. A strand of 8mm hematite (5.20) beads would be heavier than the same size strand of 8mm jasper (2.61) beads. Amber (1.08) is very light.

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Mining Gemstones

It takes many centuries for gemstones to form deep under the earth’s surface. Through natural changes, they move upward. They can be found in a crystalline form embedded in host rock, in volcanic rock, cooled lava or ash, and as a result of erosion, on top of the ground.

There are two basic mining methods. Hard rock mining requires taking the gemstones from the rock in which they formed. In placer mining, the gemstones are separated from weathered rock debris where they have been released from the original rock.

A few mines use modern computer aided methods. Drilling and blasting are not used for most gemstones because they are shock sensitive. Earth moving bulldozers may be used in some mining operations. Many gemstone veins are in deteriorated rock and are mined by hand with pick and shovel.

Placer mining is used where gemstones have been released from rock by weathering. They may have been carried by water and can be found in river beds, beaches and the ocean floor. Mining methods use water to separate the gemstones from the gravel. The principle is the same as the old panning technique. The lighter materials are washed away. Gemstones are sorted out of the remaining gravel. In many countries this mining is also still done by hand.

Gemstone Information

Many beads are made from gemstone material. This section of All About Beads includes a brief history of gemstones, ancient gemstone lore and gemstone healing. Additional information for individual gemstones is on the gemstone list page.

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Gemstone History

Much of the gemstone history comes from archiological discoveries, and ancient writings. They are often found in burial sites where they were meant to protect and accompany their owner into the next life. Evidence of the first jewelry dates from 25,000 – 12,000 B.C. The first types were pieces of bones, teeth, and shells that could be hung on the body as primitive necklaces.

As stronger tools were developed, carving became possible and jewelry materials were made into shapes. Soft, opaque stones were the first gemstone beads. By 2,500 B.C. carnelian, lapis lazuli, and rock crystal were in use.

Colorful gemstones were first found on the earth’s surface. There is evidence of gemstone mining of lapis lazuli in Afghanistan as early as 5,000 B.C. In 3,000 B.C there was mining of turquoise in the Sinai peninsula and of emeralds in Egypt. Amber was traded in the areas around the Baltic Sea. In North and South America turquoise was mined.

Ancient Beliefs

Gemstones have always been symbols of wealth, power, and authority. Kings put them in crowns, shields, swords, and jewelry. Adornment was not the only purpose for wearing them. Gemstones were thought to have many powers for healing and influencing future well being. They were given mystical powers and believed to possess life, old age, disease, and death. They even could become part of the body and soul of the wearer.

Specific beliefs about healing differed according to historical time period, geographical location, and religion. Probably the earliest use was by medicine men in ancient tribes. The early Egyptians, Babylonians, and Assyrians all believed that colored stones had healing properties. The color that the disease caused in the body determined the color of stone used. They could also influence the health of a specific part of the body and could protect it. Red stones were associated with blood, green with eyes, etc. Remedies included wearing the stone, pressing it against a wound, holding it in the mouth, steeping it in wine to be drunk, or grinding it into powder to be taken by mouth.

In the first century B.C. the Roman writer Pliny gave a description of the medical importance of gemstones. In the 12th century A.D. Hildegard, abbess of a convent in Germany, wrote a book of remedies. Later as transportation and trading became more common, merchants gave every possible value to each stone with much overlapping. There was at that time no way of differentiating minerals of similar colors. The same name was given to many gemstones of the same color. As a result, historical information is confusing.

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For more detailed information about individual gemstones, look on the Gemstone List page.

EVERYTHING ABOUT GLASS BEADS

Making glass beads
Glass consists of silica, lime, and soda, or potash. When fired to a high temperature, these ingredients fuse and become transparent. Adding minerals produces colors: iron – green and blue, cobalt – deep blue, manganese – purple, gold – red and pink, lead – brightens colors and clarifies clear glass, calcium or tin – makes colors opaque. An opalescent milky sheen is produced by adding bone ash or by not letting all the crystals melt away during the heating. Repeated heating and cooling eliminates gas and air bubbles that cause flaws and cracks.

Lampwork glass
Some of the earliest glass beads were made at home in areas that are now the Czech Republic and southern Germany. The beads were made individually by hand. A glass cane was melted using a gas lamp. The name lamp or lampwork glass refers to beads that are still made in nearly the same way.

Lampwork glass beads are now made in workshops in those same geographical areas. They are also made in Venice and Murano, Italy. In the United States, artists and hobbyists make one of a kind beads. A small torch is used rather than a gas lamp. The glass cane is melted and wrapped around a wire to form the bead. It can be rolled in a mold to form the shape.

Lampwork beads are decorated in many ways. In the workshops where they are made in large quantities for sale, the workers must be trained to produce nearly identical beads. Some of the designs include:
A core of silver or gold foil under colored glass, sometimes with flowers, swirls, or patterns over the foil.
A gold design on the surface.
Design of another color on the surface such as dots, lines, stripes, spirals, wavy lines, either left raised or polished smooth.
Frosted, a matte finish from an acid bath.
Crumbled, rolled in powdered glass before cooling.
Fusing colors from 2 canes in the same bead.
Millefiori (thousand flowers) using slices of canes that have flower designs which were previously made from various smaller colored canes. A layer of clear glass encases the flowers.
A core decorated with a flower or coil under a layer of clear glass.
A lacy effect using a combination of colored, milky white, or clear canes twisted together and encased in clear glass.
Some of these designs were developed in Venice and Murano.

Faceted glass beads are made in 2 ways. They may be cut, either by hand or by machine using glass containing lead for crystal beads. Another method makes beads that are fire polished. They are molded and then heat treated using glass that does not have lead. The heat creates a smooth finish and clean edges.

Pressed glass beads are made by pouring molten glass into molds to form the shapes.

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SEED BEADS 

Seed bead is a name given to tiny glass beads. The name is often used as a general term that includes all kinds of tiny beads. It is also used as a name for a particular kind of tiny bead.

Making seed beads
Beads can be made using 2 methods. The wound method is primarily the same as used for lampglass. The beads are made one at a time. Most seed beads are no longer made this way.

The drawn method forms a tube of glass which can be cut into many beads. Excellent quality seed beads are made in Japan using this method in modern factories.

Determining sizes of seed beads
Numbers up to 24 are assigned to seed beads to indicate the size. The higher the number, the smaller the bead. The sizes start at about 1mm. The bead size for each number may vary from one company to another. The smallest beads from #18 to #24 are no longer made and considered antiques.

Kinds of seed beads
These tiny beads are known by different names according to size and shape. A bugle bead is the same diameter as a seed bead, but longer, resembling a tube. The length is 1/8 inch or longer, 2mm to 30mm. The shape can be straight or twisted. Delica is a thin walled Japanese bead, usually size #11. Charlotte is a seed bead that has been ground flat on one side. Two cuts looks like a short faceted bugle bead. Three cuts has random cuts all over. Hex cuts are 6 sided. Rocaille is silver lined. E beads are doughnut shaped #6, about 4mm.

Seed beads are many colors. They can be transparent, translucent. or opaque. The surface can be shiny, semi gloss, or matte. Coatings are sometimes applied. Aurora borealis gives rainbow iridescence. Luster is a transparent coating that gives shine. Pearlescent gives milky luster. Galvanized is a thin metal electroplated coating.

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All about Swarovski crystal beads

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History of Swarovski Crystal
In 1862 Daniel Swarovski was born in Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The area was an important center for manufacturing glass and crystal. He learned the glass cutting trade in his father’s small factory. At that time, cutting was done by hand.

In 1892 he invented a crystal cutting machine which was faster and more precise than hand cutting. In 1895 Daniel Swarovski, his brother-in-law Franz Weis, and Armand Kosmann founded the Swarovski company in Wattens, Austria near Innsbruck.

Machine cutting results in identical size, shape, and sharp facets. Swarovski crystal contains 32% lead which gives the glass purity and sparkle. Color is the result of adding chemicals during the formation of the crystals. As in gemstones, different chemicals absorb different wave lengths of light. We see the opposite color. Swarovski controls color and produces identical beads.

In 1995 the Swarovski company perfected a computer controlled technique for producing crystal beads that are even more precise. The perfect facets control light reflection and produce maximum sparkle.

Swarovski beads are available in many colors, coatings, and shapes. Coatings change the look of the color. The most popular, aurora borealis (AB) causes a rainbow effect. This color chart includes many, but not all, of their colors.

Swarovski Crystal Colors

Swarovski Birthstone Colors

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Special order handcrafted Swarovski crystal jewelry necklaces, bracelets and earrings in these colors.

Here you will read about differences in sizes of the types of bead shapes.

BEAD SHAPES
The names of bead shapes are usually descriptive. The actual beads may seem a little different from their photo. The reason is that they are 3 dimensional, while the photo is 2 dimensional.

Let’s compare different shapes of 8mm beads.

Lets compare a necklace of 10mm round beads to a necklace of 8mm round beads. On a ruler 2 millimeters difference looks very small. It measures diameter. When you see the actual necklaces, the 10mm beads will be much larger.

In the jewelry descriptions, I list the bead shapes and tell you a size range. The thing to remember is that photos can be deceiving.

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Millimeter Conversion Charts

Convert Millimeters To Inches

BEAD SIZE CHART 

Convert Inches to Millimeters

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This section of All About Beads includes birthstones charts, a list of zodiac gemstones and anniversary gemstone list.

Birthstone Jewelry
Assigning gemstones to months as birthstones began in 18th century Poland.  The stone was stronger during its assigned month, especially for a person born in that month. Lists of birthstones have changed over time and from one country to another.

The modern U.S. list is essentially the same as the one approved by the National Association of Jewelers in Aug. 1912 at a meeting in Kansas City.

Put this old lady to work and custom order birthstone jewelry.

Ancient Zodiac Chart
According to astrological beliefs, heavenly bodies have influence over people.  These beliefs dating back to ancient times, state that the power is greater when wearing the gemstone assigned to the planet, especially for a person born under its influence.

Beliefs
Your gift will have more impact when you present meaning behind it. Color was used to differentiate gemstones before modern testing techniques made identification of gemstones precise. All stones of the same color were given these attributes:

Interpretation of Dreams
An interesting list is in a book on ancient lore by George Kunz. It interpreted dreams.

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